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  • G01N33/5058—Neurological cells
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  • G01N33/507—Pancreatic cells
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  • G01N33/5091—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing involving human or animal cells for testing the pathological state of an organism
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
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  • A01K2217/00—Genetically modified animals
  • A01K2217/07—Animals genetically altered by homologous recombination
  • A01K2217/075—Animals genetically altered by homologous recombination inducing loss of function, i.e. knock out
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
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  • A01K2227/10—Mammal
  • A01K2227/105—Murine
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
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  • A01K2267/00—Animals characterised by purpose
  • A01K2267/03—Animal model, e.g. for test or diseases
  • A01K2267/0331—Animal model for proliferative diseases
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
  • G01N2500/00—Screening for compounds of potential therapeutic value
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
  • Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
  • Y10T436/00—Chemistry: analytical and immunological testing
  • Y10T436/16—Phosphorus containing
  • Y10T436/163333—Organic [e.g., chemical warfare agents, insecticides, etc.]

Definitions

• the present invention relates to methods for testing and screening for a compound for a therapeutic effect for treating disorders related to unbalanced phosphatidy- linositol phosphate cascade and/or signaling pathway. More particularly the pre ⁇ sent invention relates to methods utilizing a prostatic acid phosphatase knockout non-human animal model. The present invention also relates to diagnostic meth ⁇ ods and methods for treating disorders related to phosphatidylinositol phosphate cascade and signaling pathway.
• Mammalian prostatic and lysosomal acid phosphatases include a co- valent phosphohistidine intermediate in their reaction mechanism, and they are thus called histidine acid phosphatases.
• the same histidine acid phosphatase group includes E. coli pH 2.5 acid phosphatase and glucose-1 -phosphatase, yeast acid phosphatases, Aspergillus phytases A and B, and E. coli phytase.
• coli phy- tase catalyzes the sequential hydrolysis of phosphate phytate (myo-inositol- 1 , 2,3,4, 5,6-hexa/f/sphosphate, IP 6 ) to less phosphorylated myoinositol derivatives and inorganic phosphate. and its derivatives have functions in RNA export, DNA repair, and DNA recombination and in endocytosis and vesicular trafficking.
• the inventor's earlier structural studies of PAP showed that the ⁇ / ⁇ domain re ⁇ ttles the structure of phosphoglycerate mutase. This domain contains a se ⁇ quence motif that is also present in the bifunctional phosphofructokinase/fructose bisphosphatase.
• the active site of PAP is a rather open, readily accessible cleft. Despite low sequence homology (14% identity), the crystal structure of E. coli phy ⁇ tase is closely related to PAP.
• the histidine residue in the conserved motif, RHGXRXP serves as a nucleophile in the formation of a covalent phosphohis ⁇ tidine intermediate, and the aspartatic acid residue of the C-terminal conserved histidine domain motif serves as a proton donor to the oxygen atom of the phos- phoester bond.
• hPAP has been unclear. It has been suggested that the growth- suppressing effect of hPAP is due to its intrinsic protein tyrosine phosphatase ac ⁇ tivity, and this suggestion was supported by theoretical modelling and molecular- dynamic simulation methods, which demonstrated that EGFR and its homologue ErbB-2 could be possible in vivo ligands. The theory is further supported by the declining phosphorylation status of ErbB-2 after intratumoral administration of hPAP cDNA. However, hPAP has also been shown to be a universal protein phosphatase that hydrolyzes equally well the phosphotyrosine, -serine, and -threonine residues.
• the activity of hPAP is lower in prostate carcinomas than in normal prostates, and both hPAP mRNA and protein levels are decreased or absent in prostate carcinoma tissue. Similar effects can be observed in prostate cancer cell lines: the hPAP-expressing LNCaP cell line has a slower proliferation rate than the non-expressing PC-3 and DIM 45 cells. Studies with transfected hPAP support the growth-suppressing effect.
• the present inventor has earlier demonstrated the binding of hPAP to the main high-density lipoprotein apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1 ). ApoA-1 is lipidated during its progress through intracellular vesicle traffic from the cell surface lipid raft into early endosomes, late endosomes, and finally back to the cell surface as a nascent HDL particle.
• apoA-1 main high-density lipoprotein apolipoprotein A-1
• Animal models such as transgenic or knockout animal models, may be used to investigate disorders related to certain genes.
• One such disorder is prostate cancer or tumor, which has been shown in the current invention to be associated with prostatic acid phosphatase in a specific way.
• prostatic acid phosphatase in a specific way.
• animal models which promote the formation of prostate tumor.
• Genetically defined mouse models that mimic natural aspects of human prostate cancer development discloses several known mouse models for prostate cancer and exploitation thereof. This and all the other publications and other material disclosed herein are incorporated by reference.
• the PTEN phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 tumor suppressor gene is one of the most frequently mutated/deleted genes in various human cancers.
• Wang et al. (Cancer Cell 4, 209-221) disclose a murine PTEN prostate cancer model.
• WO 2004096153 describes prostate cancer therapeutics and speculates on ani ⁇ mal models having knockout prostatic acid phosphatase gene.
• no actual animal models were disclosed.
• the present invention is based on the finding that decrease or absence of the ac ⁇ tivity of prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) is related to certain disorders not asso ⁇ ciated to PAP before. These diseases and disorders relate to unbalanced phos- phatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI(3)P) and PI(4,5)P 2 signaling pathway.
• PAP prostatic acid phosphatase
• One aspect of the present invention relates to a method for testing and screening for compound for an therapeutic effect, said method comprising the steps of ad ⁇ ministering said compound to a cell or a non-human animal having disruption in the prostatic acid phosphatase gene or regulation thereof resulting in a decrease or absence of the activity or the level of prostatic acid phosphatase, and determin ⁇ ing if said compound substantially restores the unbalanced phosphatidylinositol phosphate signaling pathway related to PAP expression or activity on said cell or said animal, said restoring indicating said compound being therapeutically effec- tive for treating disorders related to unbalanced phosphatidylinositol phosphate signaling pathway.
• the response of said restoring may be decrease in PI(4,5)P2 accumulation or decrease in the level of PI(3)P, caused by the recovered PAP ac ⁇ tivity or level of expression.
• substantially restoring refers to such restoration or normalization of unbalanced PIP signaling pathway, either complete or partial, which has therapeutic value and effect.
• Another aspect of the present invention relates to diagnostic method wherein the increased level of PI(4,5)P2 is used to indicate the presence of a disease or disor ⁇ der related to unbalanced phosphatidylinositol phosphate signaling pathway.
• One aspect of the present invention relates to therapeutic compounds obtained by said screening method.
• Another aspect of the current invention relates to methods for treating disorders related to unbalanced phosphatidylinositol phosphate cascade and/or signaling pathway related to prostatic acid phosphatase resulting in PI(4,5)P2 accumulation, increased level of PI(3)P or increased ratio of PI(4,5)P2/PI(4)P, by administering a patient suffering said disorder compound which increases the level of expression or activity of PAP or by giving said patient gene therapy which increases the level or restores the activity of PAP.
• the present invention utilizes a knockout animal model wherein the prostatic acid phosphatase gene in the genome of said animal has been disrupted resulting in a decrease in the activity or the level of prostatic acid phosphatase.
• Said knockout animal expresses a reduced level or activity of PAP enzyme in certain cells or tis ⁇ sues or preferably does not express PAP at all.
• an isolated knockout animal or plant cell such as a prostate cell
• Such cells may be cultured and used to investigate disorders related to PAP and its function.
• the animals described above may be used as a source of said cells.
• said cell may be a human cell line, such as one derived from a human cancer cell line.
• PAP which is a tyrosine phosphatase
• AP anterior
• DLP dorsolateral
• PAP activity for example inflicts changes in the prostate in every animal in the anterior (AP) and dorsolateral (DLP) lobes. These animals are viable and fertile and they develop benign prostate hy ⁇ perplasia followed by initiation of prostate cancer with prostate intraepithelial neo- plasia (PIN) and invasive adenocarcinoma.
• PIN prostate intraepithelial neo- plasia
• PI(3)P invasive adenocarcinoma.
• the results also show that PAP is not only an important regulator of PI(3)P transport, but also a novel tumor suppressor of prostate epithelial cells.
• PAP dephosphorylates phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate, which is a phospholipid. Inactivation of PAP leads to inbalance of phosphoinositide (phosphatidylinositol phosphate) cascade and to increase of PI(3)P and even more remarkable in ⁇ crease of PI(4,5)P2. This leads to changes in membrane and vesicular traffic and cytoskeleton of the cell. In addition G-protein and small GTPase signaling is changed. In addition PAP is connected to cholesterol transport and it has choles ⁇ terol binding domains. Unbalaced Pl-cascade is also dependent on cell lipid me ⁇ tabolism. Diseases like prostate, bladder and pancreatic cancer, myopathy (myo- degeneration) and neuropathy (neurodegeneration) may be caused by said inbal- anced Pl-cascade.
• the knockout animal or cell model may be utilized in several ways. It may be used when investigating prostatic intraephitelial neoplasia or other disorders related to prostatic acid phosphatase and function thereof. It may also be used when devel ⁇ oping and screening drugs for treating such diseases. Also the roles of certain hor ⁇ mones related to said disorders may be investigated.
• the animal or cell model of the present invention is directed not only to prostate cells but any other cell or tissue types naturally expressing PAP. The same disease mechanism may lead to cancer or other disorders of said other cells or tissues, such as salivary gland, kid ⁇ ney, lung, granulocytes, Langerhans cells, muscle, Schwann cells or other cells and tissues.
• the knocking out of naturally existing enzyme such as PAP
• PAP will provide a useful model for investigating disorders related to said enzyme.
• the model used in the present invention utilizes a simple approach of switching off a naturally existing PAP enzyme activity (e.g. in the prostate) as such decrease in said activity is now known to be related to certain disorders, such as prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) and carcinoma.
• PIN prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia
• FIG 1 shows the generation of PAP* 3 ** 3 deficient mouse:
• Figure 2 shows the PAP found on (A) plasma membrane, (B) membrane- associated vesicles in mouse prostate, (C) caveosome-like vesicles, (D) early en- dosome-line vesicles and (E) lysosomes.
• Figure 3 shows the increased number of enlarged vesicles and increased api- cal and basolateral exocytosis-like secretion (A-D).
• Figure 4 shows gradual development of atypical changes (A-H).
• FIG 5 shows how muscle weakness was detected in PAF 1' mice (A-D), impaired myelin formation (F-H), electrophysiological measurements of sensory and motor conduction on tail nerve (I 1 J) and disorganized fibers, inclusions and enlarged vesicles (L 1 M).
• Figure 6 shows changes in the gene expressions of Pl-kinases, their adaptor proteins and Pl-phosphatases (A) and Western blot results showing an increased amount of PTEN phosphorylated (B).
• Figure 7 shows the generation of PAP activity-deficient mouse.
• the PAP gene product is expressed in every prostate lobe. Splicing out of exon 3 results in a gene product of 557 nt in PAP 1' mice.
• Figure 9 shows smooth muscle ⁇ -actin staining of the fibromuscular sheath.
• a 1 D Normal fibromuscular sheath structures in the DLP and AP lobes of PAP +/+ mice.
• B The fibromuscular sheath is thin and irregular and tends to break down in the DLP of a PAF 1' mouse.
• C Adenocarcinoma shows different stages of dif ⁇ ferentiation.
• E 1 F The fibromuscular sheath is losing its structure in the AP of a PAF 1' mouse. Epithelial cells are bulging against the fibromuscular sheath (white arrow), and cancerous cells are breaking through (black arrows). Epithelial cells are visible in a blood vessel (*). An inflammatory response can be detected.
• ML multilayer epithelium
• SL single-layer epithelium
• knockout refers to a process of purposely removing a particular gene or trait from an organism or cell.
• a knockout is a site-specific integration that usually deletes an essential part of a gene of interest.
• Methods of making knockouts are generally known in the art, for example microinjection and targeted mutation methods.
• the knockouts of the present invention may be done with any known knockout methods, such as any heritable modifications of the PAP gene, as long as they result to substantial disruption of at least part of the PAP gene or an expression regulation region thereof resulting in substantial disruption of the original function of expressed PAP enzyme or the original function of PAP gene.
• the knockout is done by replacing a part of the PAP gene with an external nucleic acid molecule and introducing this modified gene into the genome of the animal to replace the original PAP gene.
• the knockout may also be done by removing the whole gene of interest.
• substantially disrupted or “substantially reduced” are herein intended to mean that substantially lower amount of normal PAP gene product is produced in cells or in organism when compared to normal cells or organisms. Preferably such lower amount refers to essentially undetectable amount of normal gene product.
• This type of mutation is generally called as a “null mutation” and an animal carrying such a mutation is also referred to as a “knockout animal”.
• knockout animal an animal carrying such a mutation
• the "decrease in activity" of the PAP as used herein refers to a decrease of total enzyme activity of said disrupted or substantially disrupted PAP gene product in certain cells. Said decrease in activity may be partial or the activity may be totally lost and it is sufficient to cause disorders related to PAP gene, such as described in the specification. Said decrease in activity may relate for example to reduced level of expressed PAP, for example if the promoter region of the PAP gene has been altered, or to disrupted structure or function of PAP enzyme. "Decrease in the activity of (expressed) PAP” refers not only to expressed PAP which has lower activity compared to normal PAP, but also to PAP which is expressed at lower lev ⁇ els than normally. This embraces also PAP which is substantially not expressed at all.
• the "PAP gene” as used herein refers to any suitable prostatic acid phosphatase gene or homologue or derivative thereof.
• the PAP gene to be used in the present invention may be of any suitable origin, plant or animal, such as rat, mouse or hu ⁇ man PAP gene.
• the human prostatic acid phosphatase (hPAP) gene is used to provide a model for investigating human PAP-related disorders.
• the human PAP gene may be inserted to another species, such as rat or mouse, or to a cell thereof, to provide a transgenic animal or cell model for investigating said disorders or diseases.
• PAP genes of other origins may be used, such as mouse PAP (mPAP) or rat PAP (rPAP).
• any PAP gene from any suit ⁇ able organism, which will produce, when expressed in a cell, a substantially func- tional PAP enzyme may be used.
• Such PAP gene may be a homologue of a known PAP gene from certain species having insertions or deletions of amino ac ⁇ ids, but still having sufficient homology with the original gene to produce substan- tially analogous PAP enzyme.
• Such homology is preferably at least 50%, more preferably 80% and most preferably 90% at amino acid level.
• Phosphatidylinositol phosphate refers to any phosphatidylinositol phos- phate as described herein, such as phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate PI(3)P, phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate PI(4)P, PI(5)P, Pl(3,5) 2 , PI(4,5)P 2 , PI(3,4,5)P 3 or corresponding soluble inositol phosphate (IP).
• PIP soluble inositol phosphate
• the inventor of the present invention simultaneously modeled, based on the conserved active site amino acid residues of PAP and E. coli phytase, inositol phosphates (IP) and phosphorylated phos- phatidylinositols, collectively called phosphoinositides (Pl), as substrates, studied the subcellular localization of PAP, and generated a PAP activity-deficient mouse model by deleting the 3rd exon of the PAP gene.
• IP inositol phosphates
• Pl phosphorylated phos- phatidylinositols
• PAP is a phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate [PI(3)P] phosphatase on the endosomal path ⁇ way, and that knockout of PAP activity results in a changed Pl- kinase/phosphatase cascade favorable for PI(4,5)P2 accumulation, which is causa- tive of altered G-protein signaling and vesicular/membrane trafficking and of pros ⁇ tate adenocarcinoma, myopathy and neuropathy.
• PI(3)P phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate
• the current invention utilizes knockout animals and cells wherein at least one al ⁇ lele of an endogenous prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) gene is functionally dis- rupted in somatic and/or germ cells.
• Said animals or cells may be heterozygous or, preferably, homozygous for the PAP knockout.
• Animals to be used in the animal model of the present invention include any suit ⁇ able non-human animals, such as vertebrates, or more particularly mammals.
• the term animal includes an individual animal in all stages of development, including embryonic and fetal stages.
• the animal is a rodent, such as mouse or rat, which are generally used as similar applications may be adapted to both species.
• the cells to be used include any suitable cells, from plants or animals, for example ones derived from the animal described above or human cell lines.
• the disruption may be made to exon 3 of the PAP gene. This is preferred because exon 3 is involved with PAP activity. This will ensure that the activity of the PAP enzyme will be abolished. Said exon 3 may be knocked out totally or its function may be decreased partially. However, similar disruptions or knockouts may be also made to another suitable part of PAP gene, for example by introducing dele ⁇ tions or insertions of nucleic acids to obtain the defective PAP. The PAP gene may also be totally removed. Said disruption may also refer to the level of expressed gene product.
• Said disruption may be introduced into said prostatic acid phosphatase gene by replacing at least part of it with an external nucleic acid sequence.
• an external nucleic acid sequence is the commonly used neo cassette.
• Said prostatic acid phosphatase gene may be originated from different species, such as human, mouse or rat prostatic acid phosphatase gene or homologue thereof, or it is a recombinant PAP gene.
• Said external nucleic acid molecule used for replacing part of the PAP gene may be any suitable nucleic acid molecule containing suitable nucleic acid sequence which is able to decrease the activity or level of expressed prostatic acid phos ⁇ phatase when inserted to the PAP gene, for example at the location of exon 3.
• Targeting to generate a null or mutated allele is usually accomplished by insertion of a selectable marker into a gene causing disruption of splicing, promoter func ⁇ tion, or reading frame, with or without deletion of some of the gene.
• One com ⁇ monly used selectable marker gene for making knockouts is the neo gene, which confers resistance to the antibiotic neomycin. Also other suitable sequences may be used.
• One embodiment of the present invention provides methods of screening a com ⁇ pound, such as a drug candidate, for a therapeutic effect, comprising: a) exposing the knockout animal or cell to a compound and b) determining the response of the animal or cell to the compound.
• a change in response compared to the response of a knockout animal or cell not exposed to the com ⁇ pound indicates the response to the compound.
• Such control animal may be ex ⁇ posed for example to placebo or other compound.
• the re ⁇ sponse of a knockout animal or cell is compared to one of a wild type animal.
• the knockout animals or cells are examined directly without comparison to a wild-type animal. Such methods are generally well known in the art.
• Said therapeutic effect is against a disorder related to prostatic acid phos ⁇ phatase.
• disorders are prostatic atypical hyperpla ⁇ sia, prostatic intraephitelial neoplasia, carcinoma and other disorders related to phosphorylation/dephosphorylation or transport of phosphatidylinositol 3- phosphate (PI(3)P).
• PI(3)P phosphatidylinositol 3- phosphate
• said disorder may be associated with the PI(3)P metabolism and related mechanisms, such as insulin response, lipid metabolism, growth factor response, cell division, apoptosis etc., which are regulated by PI(3)P.
• Said diseases and disorders include prostate, bladder and pancreatic cancer, myopathy (myodegeneration) and neu ⁇ ropathy (neurodegeneration).
• a compound found with the method of the invention may be used as medicament for treating the disorders disclosed herein.
• Non- limiting example of such compound may be a compound acting as an enhancer for the expression of PAP.
• One embodiment of the present invention provides diagnostic methods wherein the increased level of PI(4,5)P2 measured from a sample is used to indicate the presence of a disease or disorder related to unbalanced phosphatidylinositol phosphate cascade or signaling pathway related to prostatic acid phosphatase as described herein.
• a person skilled in the art can easily select a method for meas ⁇ uring the level of PI(4,5)P2 and also compare the measured values to normal ref ⁇ erence values in order to make the diagnosis.
• the general level of PI(4,5)P2 de ⁇ fined from a healthy reference group may be used as reference when defining said increased level of PI(4,5)P2.
• Said sample may be in vitro or in vivo sample, such as one taken from a tissue suffering from suspected disorder or disease or the like.
• the increased ratio of PI(4,5)P2/PI(4)P is further used to indicate the presence of said diseases or disorders. Normally this ratio is about 1 , but in pathological conditions the level of PI(4,5)P2 is increased and the ratio is substantially over 1 , for example about 2, 3 or 4.
• One embodiment of the present invention provides methods for treating said dis ⁇ eases or disorders related to PAP by gene therapy and other methods to restore the activity of PAP.
• a compound affecting to the expression or effect of PAP may be administered to tissues or cells of a patient suffering a condition or disorder re ⁇ lated to PAP, as described above.
• gene therapy affecting to or restoring the activity of PAP may be given to such patient.
• the gene therapy preferably restores at least part of the PAP activity.
• Suitable genes to be used in such gene therapy include any suitable PAP gene or nucleotide vector of the invention as described herein.
• the gene therapy or other treatment may be administered to the patient for example by injection to target, such as to prostate or by prostate artery, as a virus vector.
• virus vectors which may be used to carry the PAP gene include baculo, adeno and lenti viruses (see e.g. Airenne et al.: “Baculovirus-mediated Gene Transfer: An Evolving New Concept", Templeton NS, ed. Gene and Cell Therapy, 181-197, New York, Marcel Dekker, 2004; Kost et al.: "Baculovirus as versatile vectors for protein expression in insect and mammalian cells, Nature Bio ⁇ technology 2005:23, 567-575).
• PAP knockout (KO) mouse model was generated by deleting the 3 rd exon of the mPAP gene.
• the pre- sent inventor found out that PAP is PI(3)P-lipid phosphatase, regulates PI(3)P membrane traffic, and its inactivation is causative for prostate cancer.
• the corre ⁇ sponding publication (Vihko PT, Quintero I, Ronka AE, Herrala A, Jantti P, Porvari K, Lindqvist Y, Kaija H, Pulkka, A, Vuoristo J, et al.
• PAcP Prostatic acid phos ⁇ phatase
• the PAP " ' " mouse is the model for invasive prostate cancer both in AP and DLP lobes. Gene expression and subcellular changes are detected long before histo ⁇ logical changes.
• PAP is a novel PI(3)P-phosphatase and allosterically regulated
• Phosphatidylinositol constitutes about 8% of all phospholipid in mammalian cells. It is present in the cytoplasmic leaflet of various cellular membranes. Activa- tion of cell membrane receptors by extracellular stimuli leads to generation of sec ⁇ ond messengers from phosphatidylinositol by specific kinases (PI3Ks) phosphory- lating the inositol headgroup of Pl in cells in the 3-, 4- or 5-position. Pl and its phosphorylated derivates recruit effector proteins to specific subcellular localiza- tions and contribute to their activity.
• PI3Ks specific kinases
• PI(3)P, PI(4)P, Pl(3,5) 2 and Pl(4,5) 2 have im ⁇ portant, albeit not completely elucidated roles both in regulated and constitutive membrane traffic.
• the differential intracellular distribution of PIPs can be achieved by localized synthesis and degradation resulting from restricted distribution of Pl- kinase and Pl-phosphatase isoforms. Many of these kinases and phosphatases are cytosolic enzymes, and their targeting to different intracellular domains is not completely elucidated. It is however known to often involve small GTPases and GTP-binding proteins.
• PI3Ks can be divided into three classes.
• class I and class Il PI3Ks utilize Pl, PI(4)P, and PI(4,5)P 2 as substrates, with the preference of class I PI3K for PI(4,5)P 2 and class Il PI3K for PIs.
• Class III PI3Ks only use PIs as a substrate in vitro, and are believed to be responsible for the generation of the majority of the PI(3)P in cells. Differing from the cytosolic localization of class I PI3Ks, class Il en- zymes are predominantly membrane-bound.
• PI3K-C2 ⁇ has a carboxyl terminal phospholipid and Ca 2+ binding domain C2 and it has been demonstrated in nuclear membranes and the nucleus.
• PAP is a novel PI(3)P-phosphatase.
• Pl-phosphatases can be divided into different groups based on their favored substrate: 3- and 4- phosphatases from the CX 5 R families and type Il 5-phosphatases.
• CX 5 R has been identified as an active site motif of the protein tyrosine phosphatase family. Only a few tyrosine phosphatases have been shown to possess inositol lipid phosphatase activity.
• the best-known PI(3)P-phosphatases so far are myotubularin (MTM) and phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN).
• MTM myotubularin
• PTEN phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10
• Allosteric regulation is characteristic of Pl-phosphatases.
• Kinetic analysis of PAP with PI(3)P showed that plots of initial reaction velocity as a function of substrate concentration are not hyperbolic, and hence PAP does not obey Michaelis-Menten kinetics, but sigmoidal curves were obtained. This suggests an allosteric regulation mechanism.
• PTEN and phosphatases of the myo ⁇ tubularin family have been reported to be regulated through allosteric mechanism by the end product or by other PIP.
• PTEN is hydrolyzing PI(3,4,5)P 3
• the end product, PI(4,5)P 2 regulates the phosphatase activity of PTEN in vitro through an allosteric mechanism.
• MTM 1 and MTM6 hydrolyze mostly PI(3)P and PI(3,5)P 2 in vitro, and PI(5)P has been reported to have a positive feedback effect on both reactions.
• PTEN and myotubularins which besides their favor ⁇ ite substrate, hydrolyze other PIP-compounds, although less effectively, PTEN-like phosphatase (PLIP) hydrolyzed specifically only PI(5)P, and the activity showed a hyperbolic dependence on substrate concentration.
• PLIP PTEN-like phosphatase
• ⁇ represents residue of F, W or Y, X represents any amino acid, and X(1-5) one to five residues of any amino acids.
• Mouse DLP is considered most similar to the human peripheral zone, where most detected cancers arise.
• Mouse AP is considered analogous to the human central zone around the urethra, where cancers exist and are detected by transurethral resection.
• Mouse VP has no human homolog and the human transitional zone has no mouse homologue.
• Mouse prostate cancer models have been created either via transgenic or knock ⁇ out approaches. So far, the transgenic adenocarcinoma mouse prostate (TRAMP) (Greenberg et al., 1995, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92, 3439-3443; Garabedian et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
• TRAMP transgenic adenocarcinoma mouse prostate
• PAP is an important regulator of the function of the prostate gland and its inactivation is causative for prostate cancer.
• the PAF 1' mouse model of prostate can ⁇ cer will be beneficial for science and patients.
• mice mice
• suitable animals for example rats.
• the PAPs and the functions thereof described herein are similar among different spe ⁇ cies.
• PAP is PI(3)P-lipid phosphatase
• PAP binds strongly only to PI(3)P ( Figure 1 D). PAP showed no affinity to the other lipids tested: lysophosphatidic acid, lysophosphocholine, Pl, PI(4)P, PI(5)P, PI(3,4)P 2 , PI(3,5)P 2 , PI(4,5)P 2 , PI(3,4,5)P 3 , phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, sphingosine-1 -phosphate, phosphatidic acid, or phosphati- dylserine. This shows that PI(3)P is a principal substrate for PAP.
• PAP is found on plasma membrane (Figure 2A) and is membrane-associated in vesicles in mouse prostate (Figure 2B). IEM studies with LNCaP cells showed PAP to be topological ⁇ present on the Pl pathway: caveosome-like vesicles (Fig ⁇ ure 2C), early endosome-like vesicles (Figure 2D), and lysosomes (Figure 2E). PAP-deficient mice develop adenocarcinoma of prostate, myopathy, and neuropathy
• PAP has so far also been found to be expressed in lactating mammary gland, sali- vary gland, Schwann cells, muscle, liver, lung, kidney, spleen, thymus, bladder, Langerhans islets (Figure 8) and granulocytes.
• prostate cells of two-month-old PAP-deficient mice had lost their microvilli and single-layer colum ⁇ nar epithelial structure, characteristic of the loss of cell polarity.
• the increased number of enlarged vesicles and increased apical and basolateral exocytosis-like secretion were seen with filament structures stacking inside the epithelial cells of PAF 1' prostates (Figure 3A-D).
• the PI(3)P, PI(3,4)P 2 , and PI(3,4,5)P 3 are all dephosphorylated by PTEN.
• Pten was upregulated (+2.1x).
• Extensive downregulation of the gene for Inpp ⁇ f (-26x) dephosphorylating PI(4,5)P 2 and PI(3,4,5)P 3 was detected.
• the gene for Pip5k3, which phosphorylates Pl to PI(4)P and further to PI(4,5)P 2 was upregulated (+2.5x).
• the expression of the PI4K-encoding gene, Pik4cb was however decreased (-4.Ox).
• PLC phospholipase C
• PLD is positively regulated by protein kinase C (PKC), Arf6, and Pl(4,5) 2 , which, in the case of PLD1 , also localizes the enzyme to the plasma membrane.
• PKC protein kinase C
• Arf6 was downregulated -7.Ox.
• the Ywhae gene for tyrosine-3 monooxygenase was down- regulated -9.8x.
• Ywhae belongs to 14-3-3 proteins, which are known to inhibit PKC. Elevated IP3 production gives rise to induced release of Ca 2+ from the en ⁇ doplasmic reticulum and further effects through Ca 2+ effector proteins.
• the genes for several calcium-modulated proteins had changed expression as follows: CaImI (calmodulini ) -4.0x, Camki (calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase I) -12x, S100A6 (S100 calcium binding protein A6 (calcyclin)) -5.3x, and Atp2c1 (ATPase, Ca 2+ -sequestering) -32x.
• CaImI calmodulini
• Camki calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase I
• S100A6 S100 calcium binding protein A6 (calcyclin)
• Atp2c1 ATPase, Ca 2+ -sequestering
• PIs play a key role in signal transduction, cytoskeleton remodeling, cell migration, and vesicular/membrane trafficking.
• Changes in the Pl-kinase/phosphatase cas ⁇ cade affect the expression of their regulators and effectors, such as small GTPases (Ras, Rho, Rab, Arf and Ran).
• Ras GTPases lead to alterations in gene transcription, Rhos regulate the actin cytoskeleton, Rab and Arf family GTPases control the formation, fusion, and movement of vesicular traffic between the differ- ent membrane compartments of the cells, Rans regulate both microtubule organi ⁇ zation and nucleocytoplasmic protein transport.
• Trim which is also a member of the Arf family and known to be an activator of PLD and active in the movement of intracellular transport vesicles, was downregulated (-9.8x).
• GabarapH (-37x)
• Gaba receptors gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors
• Picalm -5.3x
• Iqgapi (-4.6x), Cdc42 (-4x), and Rhoq (-3.2x) were also downregulated.
• Tumor suppressors including Rapib (-4x), Pfn1 (-3.5x), and Rhob (-2.6x), were affected.
• Myoib (-44x) is a calmodulin- and actin-associated myosin molecular motor also present in microvilli, which disappeared in the epithelial cells of PAP " ' " prostates.
• Tpm1 (-42x), which induces stress fibers and functions as a tumor suppressor, Enah (-28x), actin-binding proteins, Spink3 (-119x), which is essential for the main- tenance of the integrity of acinar cells, and Dnajb ⁇ (-45x), a regulator of filament organization, are all downregulated.
• Microtubules constitute an important part of the cytoskeleton and are functionally involved in mitosis, membrane traffic, and cell movement.
• Microtubule-dependent motor proteins such as Kif21a (-37x), Rp2h (-3Ox), and the cell adhesion and polarity regulators Rds (-6x), Cdc42 (-4x), and Rac1 (-3x), were downregulated as well.
• MAPK/Erk signaling pathway is imbalanced and Akt is functional
• PI(3,4,5)P 3 accounts for a number of cellular func ⁇ tions via PI3K/Akt signaling: cell growth, proliferation, resistance to apoptosis, regulation of cytoskeleton dynamics, membrane trafficking, and responses of insu ⁇ lin, and it is a substrate of PTEN. Resting mammalian cells contain significant lev- els of PI(3)P, and it is under debate whether the overall level of PI(3)P is increased upon cellular stimulation. The levels of the other 3-PIs rise, but probably never reach the levels of PI(4,5)P2 or PI(4)P. PI(3)P is associated with the endosome system and is at the lipid rafts subdomain of the plasma membrane after insulin induction. Both in yeast and in C.
• PAP ' " prostates
• exocytosis was increased.
• PAP has a putative cholesterol binding domain, but its effect on cholesterol-dependent clusters is not known.
• One mechanism underlying the detected reduced secretion of PAP " ' " epithelial cells of prostate may be cholesterol depletion.
• Inactivation of Pl- phosphatases results in disturbed vesicular/membrane trafficking.
• Synaptojanin 1 which is a presynaptic Pl-phosphatase, is a regulator of synaptic vesicle recycling, and neurons of synanpojanin 1 -deficient mice show elevated PI(4,5)P2 levels and accumulation of clathrin-coated vesicles in nerve endings.
• MTM1 myotubularin
• CMT Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
• MTMR2 myotubularinrelated protein 2
• Pl 3-phosphatase myotubularinrelated protein 2
• This demyelinating motor and sensory neuropathy is characterized by the presence of focally folded myelin sheaths.
• CMT 2B which is a peripheral sensory axonal neuropathy causing sen ⁇ sory loss and distal muscle weakness and atrophy, is linked to chromosome 3q21 , and thereby to the missense mutation in Rab7 colocalizing with PI(3)P to late en ⁇ dosomes.
• the chromosomal location of PAP was mapped to 3q21-q23.
• Rab5 another endosomal regulator
• PAP PAP " ' " prostates. It regulates the production of PI(3)P by directly phosphorylating Pl via PI3K or by interacting with an enzymatic cascade of PI3K, PI5 and PI4- phosphatases. It can directly interact with a microtubule motor and stimulate the stable association of endosomes with microtubules by regulating endosomal dock ⁇ ing, fusion, and motility on microtubules.
• Downregulation of Rab ⁇ a has been ob ⁇ served in metastatic prostate cancer and is suggested to have a role in oncogene ⁇ sis.
• PAP is transported onto the endosomal path- way. It is secreted both in prostate and in salivary gland. In saliva, it may also have phytase activity. It has a lysosomal targeting signal and is detected in lysosomes. It also has putative caveolin and cholesterol-binding domains, and we conclude that it might be taken back into cells by the endosomal pathway, but the exact mechanism is under investigation. A remarkable amount of G-protein/small G- protein signaling genes were changed, suggesting that PAP is functional on plasma membrane and endosomal pathway.
• PAP is a novel PI3-phosphatase and an important regulator of the amount/equilibrium and local distribution of phosphatidylinositol phosphates.
• This finding constitutes the molecular basis for the disease mechanism in prostate adenocarcinoma, myopathy, and neuropathy involving disturbed G-protein signaling together with disordered vesicu ⁇ lar/membrane trafficking and cytoskeletal organization.
• mice with a modified PAP gene were generated.
• Neomycin phosphotransferase (neo) gene was inserted into exon 3 of the PAP genomic fragment ( Figure 1A) and gene tar ⁇ geting was carried out in embryonal stem (ES) cells.
• ES embryonal stem
• Homologous recombination at the PAP locus occurred in two out of 27 ES cell clones analyzed by PCR.
• Ho- mozygous PAP ⁇ 3 mice with homogenous genetic background were generated using standard methods and correct targeting was confirmed with Southern blot analyses (Figure 1B).
• PAP present in PAP r/' m ⁇ ce was catalytically inactive.
• 129SVJ/I_ambda FIXII mouse genomic DNA library (Stratagene) was screened with the cDNA encoding rPAP (Roiko et al.: Primary structure of rat secretory acid phosphatase and comparison to other acid phosphatases, Gene 1990, 89(2): 223- 9; Porvari et al., Differential androgen regulation of rat prostatic acid phosphatase transcripts, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995, 213(3):861-8). Genomic clone of the mPAP containing exons 3-7 was isolated. An around 7 kb BamHI fragment of this clone was used as a base of the targeting construct.
• Neo gene from pTV-0 vector was cloned into the exon 3 near the 5 ' end of the construct.
• Thymidine kinase (tk) gene was added after the long arm of mPAP sequence.
• the linearized targeting construct was electroporated into ES cells, and clones were selected ac ⁇ cording to G-418 and ganciclovir resistance. Correct targeting was screened by PCR and positive clones were further analyzed with Southern blotting.
• the micro- injection method was used to generate chimeric mice and back-crossing was car ⁇ ried out in order to obtain PAP " ' " mice with a homogeneous genomic background.
• PIP stripsTM The binding of human PAP to phospholipids was screened using PIP stripsTM (Echelon Bioscience). 100 pmole of lysophosphatidic acid, lysophosphocholine, Pl, PI(3)P, PI(4)P, PI(5)P, phosphatidyletanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, sphin- gosine-1 -phosphate, PI(3,4)P 2 , PI(3,5)P 2 , PI(4,5)P 2 , PI(3,4,5)P 3 , phosphatidic acid, and phosphatidylserine was immobilized on a nitrocellulose strip.
• the strip was incubated with 10 ⁇ g/ml or 50 ⁇ g/ml human PAP in 4% non-fat dry milk (Valio) in TBS-T overnight at +4 0 C.
• the bound PAP was detected using polyclonal PAP an ⁇ tibody produced by us (Vihko et al., 1978, Clin. Chem. 24, 1915-1919), alkaline- phosphatase conjugated secondary antibody (Sigma), and the NBT/BCIP color reaction assay (Promega).
• a malachite green assay (BIOMOL GREEN TM, BIOMOL Research Laboratories, Inc.) adapted to a 96-well format was used to measure the released free- phosphate from PI(3)P (Echelon Bioscience Inc.). Briefly, the reaction (total vol ⁇ ume of 25 ⁇ l) containing 50 mM MES buffer, pH 6.5 and an indicated amount of PI(3)P, was initiated by adding the PAP (0.25 ⁇ g per reaction) purified from hu ⁇ man spermatic fluid as previously described (specific activity of the enzyme 397 ⁇ mol min "1 mg "1 ) (Vihko et al. 1978, Clin. Chem. 24, 1915-1919).
• IVT labeling kit Affymetrix
• Biotinylated cRNA was cleaned with Ge- neChip Sample Cleanup Module (Qiagen), fragmented to 35 to 200 nt, and hybrid ⁇ ized to Affymetrix MOE430A or MOE430_2.0 arrays that contain approximately 20,000 and 40,000 mouse transcripts, respectively. After being washed, the array was stained with streptavidin-phycoerythrin (Molecular Probes). The staining sig ⁇ nal was amplified by biotinylated anti-streptavidin (Vector Laboratories) and seo ond staining with streptavidin-phycoerythrin, and then scanned on GeneChip Scanner 3000.
• the expression data were analyzed using Affymetrix GeneChip Operating System software. Signal intensities of all probe sets were scaled to the target value of 500. The results were analyzed using the Onto-express tools program (Intelligent Sys ⁇ tems and Bioinformatics Laboratory).
• the number of apoptotic cells in PAP " ' " and PAP +/+ specimens was determined from 5 ⁇ m paraffin sections of AP and DLP by Tunnel assay using ApopTag Per- oxidase in situ Apoptosis Detection Kit (Chemicon International). Five fields of the gland were photographed, each field was divided into 16 segments and the cells were counted separately. Statistical analyses were performed by Student's two- tailed f-test.
• Tissue lysates were prepared from four-to-five-months-old PAP +/+ and PAP " ' " DLP lobes using 1 mM sodium orthovanadate containing lysis buffer to prevent en ⁇ dogenous phosphatase activity. Total amount of 40 ⁇ g of protein was loaded into the wells and proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE and analyzed by Western immunoblotting. Antibodies against pPTEN and pGSK3 ⁇ were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology and used according to the manufacturer's recommen ⁇ dation.
• Tissue specimens from mouse prostate lobes were fixed in 1% glutaraldehyde, 4% formaldehyde mixture in 0.1 M phosphate buffer for transmission electron micros ⁇ copy (TEM). They were postfixed in 1% osmiumtetroxide, dehydrated in acetone and embedded in Epon Embed 812 (Electron Microscopy Sciences). Thin sections were cut with a Reichert Ultracut ultramicrotome and examined in a Philips CM 100 transmission electron microscope. Images were captured by CCD camera equipped with TCL-EM-Menu version 3 from Tietz Video and Image Processing Systems GmbH.
• Fresh prostate tissues were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 for 2 hours, immersed in 2.3 M sucrose and frozen in liquid nitrogen for immunoelectron microscopy (IEM). Thin cryosections were cut with Leica Ul- tracut UCT microtome. For the single and double immunolabeling, the sections were first incubated in 5% BSA, 0.1% gelatin in PBS. Antibodies and gold conju ⁇ gates were diluted in 0.1% BSA-C (Aurion) in PBS. All washings were performed in 0.1% BSA-C in PBS.

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